Ecological Health Risk Evaluation of Potentially Toxic Metals in Saline Soils Used for Table Salt Production in Awe Salt Mining Community of Nasarawa State

Authors

  • Jude Chinedu Onwuka
    Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria; Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
    https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2950-8273
  • Daniel Apeh Egyegbola
    Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
  • Bako Danjuma
    Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria; Department of Basic Sciences, College of Agriculture Science and Technology, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
  • Amos Idzi Ambo
    Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
  • Bilyamin Ishaq
    Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
  • Enebi Estella Jasper
    Department of Chemical Sciences, Dennis Osadebay University, Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria
  • Gladys Nkeiruka Onwuka
    Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota – Ogun State, Nigeria
    https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5018-5504
  • Lucy Ooja Agho
    Department of Geology, Federal University of Lafia, PMB 146, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
  • Adamu Usman
    Department of Chemistry, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria
  • Agu Matthew Onyema
    Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B 5025, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria

Keywords:

Heavy Metal , Ecological Risk , Soil Contamination , Table Salt Mining , Saline Soil

Abstract

The assessment of potentially toxic metals (PTMs) in saline soils used for table salt production is critically important because salinity can enhance the solubility and transport of metals in soils. This study assessed the concentrations, contamination and ecological risks of selected PTMs in saline soils used for table salt production in Awe Salt Mining Community, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected and analyzed for metal (Al, As, Cr, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) concentration using Genius-IF energy dispersive X–ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometer. Enrichment factor (EF), geo–accumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (Cd), pollution load index (PLI) and ecological risk assessment (ERA) were evaluated using the measured concentrations of the PTMs. Result showed that Fe (37112.29±377.59–117044.29±993.20) was the most abundant metal. Elevated levels of Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Pb and Zn in the investigated saline soils exceeding their respective average shale reference levels, were observed. EF values indicated that the investigated saline soils have very high enrichment of Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb and Zn. CF values showed that Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Mn are probably responsible for the high contamination. Cd and PLI revealed high degree of contamination for all investigated saline soils. The presence Co, Cu and Hg may probably be the key controlling factor causing the potential ecological risk. These findings have provided valuable information for effective environmental management strategies and policy to alleviate the influence of PTMs generated from table salt mining environment.

Dimensions

Ali, S., Farooq, M., Jahangir, M., Abbas, F., Bharwana, S., & Zhang, G. (2013). Effect of chromium and nitrogen form on photosynthesis and anti-oxidative system in barley. Biol Plant. 57(4):758–763. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10535-013-0336-y.

Gao L, Yan X, Li X, Guo G, Hu Y, Ma W, Yan Y. (2011). Proteome analysis of wheat leaf under salt stress by two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE). Phytochemistry. 72(10):1180–1191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.12.008.

Singh, A. (2015). Soil salinization and waterlogging: A threat to environment and agricultural sustainability. Ecol Ind. 57:128–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.04.027.

Acosta, J. A., Jansen, B., Kalbitz, K., Faz, A., & Martínez-Martínez, S. (2011). Salinity increases mobility of heavy metals in soils. Chemosphere, 85(8), 1318–1324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.07.046

Waris, M., Baig, J. A., Talpur, F. N., & Afridi, H. I. (2022). Environmental field assessment of soil quality and phytoremediation of toxic metals from saline soil by selected halophytes. Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering, 20(1): 535–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-022-00800-7.

Violante, A., Huang, P. M., & Gadd. G. M. (2008). Biophysico-chemical processes of heavy metals and metalloids in soil environments. Wiley Online Library, New Jersey

Bartkowiak, A., Lemanowicz, J., & Hulisz P. (2017). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in salt-affected soils in the Natura 2000 area (Ciechocinek, north-central Poland). Environ Sci Pollut Res Int., 24(35): 27175-27187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0323-5.

Al-Kahtany, K. (2023). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals contamination in agricultural soil from Al Majma’ah, central Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.102993.

Okonkwo, S. I., Idakwo, S. O. & Ameh E. G. (2021). Heavy metal contamination and ecological risk assessment of soils around the pegmatite mining sites at Olode area, Ibadan southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 15, 100424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100424

Salisu, K., Yusuf, M., Ahmed, M., Mohammed, M., & Umar, I. (2016). Analysis of the distribution of heavy metals in the soils of Bagega mining area Zamfara state, Nigeria. Bayero J Pure Appl Sci, 9(1):150–159.

Onwuka, J. C., Jasper, E. E., & Onwuka, G. N. (2024). Ecological risk assessment of potentially toxic metals in arable soils around Adudu Lead-Zinc Mine, North-Central Nigeria. Journal of the Turkish Chemical Society Section a: Chemistry, 11(2), 467–482. https://doi.org/10.18596/jotcsa.1360723

Qu, J., Yuan, X., & Cong, Q., & Wang L. (2011). The effect of sodium hydrogen phosphate/citric acid mixtures on phytoremediation by alfalfa & metals availability in soil. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr., 11(2):86–96. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162011000200008.

Yahaya, S. M., Abubakar, F. & Abdu, N. (2021). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metal-contaminated soils of selected villages in Zamfara State, Nigeria. SN Appl. Sci. 3, 168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04175-6.

Onwuka, J. C., Nwaedozie, J. M., Kwon–Dung, E. H., Terna, P. T., & Nwobodo, G. N. (2022). Environmental Risk Assessment of Metal Contamination of Agricultural Soils along Major Roads of Two Peri – Urban Areas in Nasarawa State, North Central, Nigeria. J. Multidiscip. Appl. Nat. Sci., 3(1):1 – 21. https://doi.org/10.47352/jmans.2774-3047.130

Alo, A.U., Tse, A., Vatuva, A. Uugulu, S., Giadom, F., Ehibor, I., Nnurum, E. & Akaha-Tse, V. H. (2025). Multi-Criteria Risk Assessment and Prediction of Heavy Metal Pollution of Soils Around Pb–Zn Artisanal Mining Hotspots in Southeastern Nigeria. Water Air Soil Pollut., 236, 887. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-08549-z

Abalaka, S.E., Sani, N.A., Idoko, I.S. Tenuche, O. Z., Akande, M. G. Oyelowo-Abdulraheem, F. O., Adams, S. O., Adeyemo, B. T. Ubah, S. A., Enem, S. I & Ejeh, S. A. (2025). Ecological and health risk assessment of heavy metal pollution of sediments from artisanal mining in North Central Nigeria. Environ Geochem Health 47, 478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02793-2

Zhang, Y., Shen, Z., Zhou, W., Liu, C., Li, Y., Ding, B., Zhang, P., Zhang, X., & Zhang, Z. (2024). Environmental problems of emerging toxic metals and treatment technology and methods. RSC Adv., 14, 37299–37310. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA06085G.

Aliyu, A. S., Ibrahim, U., Akpa, C. T., Garba, N. N., & Ramli, A. T. (2015). Health and ecological hazards due to natural radioactivity in soil from mining areas of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Isotopes Environ Health Stud. 51(3): 448-468. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2015.1026339.

Kana, A. A., & Japhet, W. R. (2019). Aspects of the Geology and Hydrogeology around Awe Town, Nigeria. The International Journal of Science & Technoledge, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.24940/theijst/2019/v7/i2/ST1902-021.

Kaura, U. & Mohammed, M. (2017). Geophysical study of brine deposits using electrical resistivity technique in Awe, Awe Local Government Area of Nasarawa State in Nigeria. FULafia Journal of Science and Technology, 3 (2), 63-69.

Mandeng, B., Bondj, L. M., Zacharie, A., Bessa, E., Ntomb, Y. D., Wadjou, J. W., Paternie, E., & Doumo, E. (2019). Contamination and risk assessment of heavy metals , and uranium of sediments in two watersheds in Abiete-Toko gold district, Southern Cameroon. Heliyon, 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02591.

Yuen, J. Q., Olin, P. H., Lim, H. S., Benner, S. G., Sutherland, R. A., & Ziegler, A.D. (2012). Accumulation of potentially toxic elements in road deposited sediments in residential and light industrial neighborhoods of Singapore. J. Environ. Manag. 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.11.017.

Turekian, K. K., & Wedepohl, K. H. (1961). Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth’s crust. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 72(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[175:DOTEIS]2.0.CO;2

Enuneku, A., Ekene, B., & Lawrence, E. (2017). Levels, distribution, characterization and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in road side soils and earthworms from urban high traffic areas in Benin Metropolis, southern Nigeria. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.05.019

Müller, G. (1969). Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. GeoJournal, 2(3), 108–118.

Umeh, C. T., Nduka, J. K., Omokpariola, O. D., Morah, E. J., Mmaduakor, C. E., Okoye, N. H., Ekene-Echerebo, I. L., & Kalu, I. F. (2023). Ecological pollution and health risk monitoring assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals in surface water, southeastern Nigeria. Environ. Anal. Health Toxicol. 38 (2). https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2023007.

Benabid, A., Benmbarek, N., Mansouri, T., & Merdas, A. (2021). Influence of highway traffic on contamination of roadside soil with heavy metals. Civ. Eng. J. 7 (8) https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-2021-03091736.

Cong Men, R. L., Fei, X., Qingrui, W., Lijia, G., & Zhenyao, S. (2018). Pollution characteristics, risk assessment, and source apportionment of heavy metals in road dust in Beijing, China. Sci. Total Environ. 612, 138–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.123.

Gope, M., Masto, R. E., George, J., & Balachandran, S. (2018). Tracing source, distribution and health risk of potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in street dust of Durgapur, India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 154, 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.02.042.

DPR, Department of petroleum resources, (2002). Environmental guidelines and standards for the petroleum industry in Nigeria (revised edition). Department of Petroleum Resources, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, Abuja, Nigeria.

Guzel, B., Canli, O., & Aslan, E. (2022). Spatial distribution, source identification and ecological risk assessment of POPs and heavy metals in lake sediments of Istanbul, Turkey. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 175: 113172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113172

Hakanson, L. (1980). Ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A sedimentological approach. Water Research, 14, 975–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8

Oyebamiji, A., Amanambu, A., Zafar, T., Adewumi, A. J., & Akinyemi D. S. (2018). Expected impacts of active mining on the distribution of heavy metals in soils around Iludun-Oro and its environs, Southwestern Nigeria. Cogent Environ. Sci. 4 (1): 1495046. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311843.2018.1495046.

Han, Y., Zhang, S., Kang, D., Hao, N., Peng, J., Zhou, Y., Liu, K., & Chen, Y. (2025). A Decade Review of Human Health Risks from Heavy Metal Contamination in Industrial Sites. Water Air Soil Pollut., 236, 144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-07759-9

Briffa, J., Sinagra, E., & Blundell, R. (2020). Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon, 6(9), e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691

Dahija, S., Pilić, S., & Bešta-Gajević, R. (2024). Speciation, Mobilization, and Toxicity of Cadmium in Soil–Microbe–Plant System: An Overview. In: Jha, A.K., Kumar, N. (eds) Cadmium Toxicity Mitigation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47390-6_2

Hess, J., & Sorensen, M. (2018). Geogenic versus anthropogenic metals and metalloids. Journal of Environmental Protection, 9(5), 468–500. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2018.95029

Obiora, S. C., Chukwu, A., & Davies, T. C. (2018). Contamination of the Potable Water Supply in the Lead–Zinc Mining Communities of Enyigba, Southeastern Nigeria. Mine Water Environ. 38(3: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-018-0550-0.

Odewumi, S. C., & Omoniwa, B. P. (2024). Geogenic and anthropogenic sources of heavy metals contamination of soils from selected dumpsites in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 43(3), 568–576. https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v43i3.20

Ambo, A. I., Etonihu, A. C., Audu, S. S., Iyakwari, S., & Ogara, J. I. (2012). Assessment of metal concentrations in lead–zinc mines and nearby soils, plant and water in Abuni town, Awe Local Government Area, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. NSUK Journal of Science & Technology, 2(1&2), 232–241.

Harish, V., Aslam, S., Chouhan, S., Pratap, Y., & Lalotra, S. (2023). Iron toxicity in plants: A review. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(8), 1894–1900. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i82145.

Murgia, I., Marzorati, F., Vigani, G., & Morandini, P. (2022). Plant iron nutrition: The long road from soil to seeds. Journal of Experimental Botany, 73(6), 1809–1824. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erab531.

Millaleo, R., Reyes-Díaz, M., Ivanov, A. G., Mora, M. L., & Alberdi, M. (2010). Manganese as essential and toxic element for plants: Transport, accumulation and resistance mechanisms. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(4), 470–481.

Li Z, Ma Z, van der Kuijp TJ, Yuan Z, Huang L (2014) A review of soil heavy metal pollution from mines in China: pollution and health risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 468:843–853 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.08.090.

Bai, J., Zhao, Q., Wang, W., Wang, X., Jia, J., Cui, B., & Liu, X. (2019). Arsenic and heavy metals pollution along a salinity gradient in drained coastal wetland soils: Depth distributions, sources and toxic risks. Ecological Indicators, 96, 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.08.026

Fang, X., Zhong, X., Cui, Z., Zhang, Y., Du, L., Yang, Y., & Lv, J. (2023). Distribution and remediation techniques of heavy metals in soil aggregates perspective: A review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 234, 631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06647-4

Nsawir, B. J., Mouafo, H. T., Baomog, A. M. B., Adjele, J. J. B., & Noni, L. D. (2020). Determination of heavy metals (Pb, Cd and Hg) in crude and refined edible salt at production level in Cameroon – A risk assessment. Annals of Thyroid Research, 6(1), 233–238.

Acosta, J. A., Cano, A. F., Arocena, J. M., Debela, F., & Martinez-Martinez, S. (2009). Distribution of metals in soil particle size fractions and implications to risk assessment. Geoderma, 149(1–2), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.11.034

Ayrault, S., Le Pape, P., Evrard, O., Priadi, C. R., Quantin, C., Bonté, P., & Roy-Barman, M. (2014). Remanence of lead pollution in an urban river system: a multi-scale temporal and spatial study in the Seine River basin, France. Environ Sci Pollut Res., 21:4134–4148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2240-6

Heshmati, A., Vahidinia, A., & Salehi, I. (2014). Determination of Heavy Metal Levels in Edible Salt. Avicenna J Med Biochem., 2(1): e19836.

Cheraghali, A. M., Kobarfard, F., & Faeizy, N. (2010). Heavy metals contamination of table salt consumed in Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 9(2), 129–132.

Charzyński, P., Plak, A., & Hanaka, A. (2017). Influence of the soil sealing on the geoaccumulation index of heavy metals and various pollution factors. Environ Sci Pollut Res. Bull. 24: 4801–4811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8209-5.

Obaje, N. G. (2009). Geology and mineral resources of Nigeria. Springer Science & Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92685-6.

Benkhelil, J., Guiraud, M., Ponsard, J. F., & Saugy, L. (1989). The Bornu–Benue Trough, the Niger Delta and its offshore: Tectono-sedimentary reconstruction during the Cretaceous and Tertiary from geophysical data and geology. In: Geology of Nigeria, 2nd ed. Rock view, Jos. (Unpublished).

Santos Francés, F., Martínez-Graña, A., Alonso Rojo, P., & García Sánchez, A. (2017). Geochemical Background and Baseline Values Determination and Spatial Distribution of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soils of the Andes Mountain Range (Cajamarca-Huancavelica, Peru). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health; 14: 859. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080859

Tomlinson, D. L., Wilson, J. G., Harris, C. R., & Jeffrey, D. W. (1980). Problems in the assessment of heavy-metal levels in estuaries and the formation of a pollution index. Helgol. Meeresunters. 33(1): 566–575. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02414780566.

Chakravarty, M., & Patgiri, A. D. (2009). Metal pollution assessment in sediments of the Dikrong River, NE India. J Hum Ecol; 27(1):63–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2009.11906193

Dong, X., Li, C., Li, J., Wang, J., Liu, S., & Ye, B. (2010). A novel approach for soil contamination assessment from heavy metal pollution: A linkage between discharge and adsorption. J. Hazard. Mater. 175(1-3): 1022–1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.112

Lo, Y. C., Dooyema, C. A., Neri, A., Durant, J., Jefferies, T., Medina-Marino, A., et al. (2012). Childhood lead poisoning associated with gold ore processing: A village level investigation—Zamfara State, Nigeria, October – November 2010. Environ Health Perspect, 120(10): 1450–1455. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104793

cover

Published

2026-02-23

How to Cite

Ecological Health Risk Evaluation of Potentially Toxic Metals in Saline Soils Used for Table Salt Production in Awe Salt Mining Community of Nasarawa State. (2026). Lafia Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 4(1), 81-92. https://doi.org/10.62050/ljsir2026.v4n1.754

Issue

Volume 4, Issue 1 (April, 2026), Lafia Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research (LJSIR)

Section

Physical Sciences
Copyright & Licensing

Copyright (c) 2026 Jude Chinedu Onwuka, Daniel Apeh Egyegbola, Bako Danjuma, Amos Idzi Ambo, Bilyamin Ishaq, Enebi Estella Jasper, Gladys Nkeiruka Onwuka, Lucy Ooja Agho, Adamu Usman, Agu Matthew Onyema (Author)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

How to Cite

Ecological Health Risk Evaluation of Potentially Toxic Metals in Saline Soils Used for Table Salt Production in Awe Salt Mining Community of Nasarawa State. (2026). Lafia Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 4(1), 81-92. https://doi.org/10.62050/ljsir2026.v4n1.754

Most read articles by the same author(s)

Similar Articles

21-30 of 37

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.