Crude and Nano Enhanced Antifungal Properties of Acalypha wilkesiana leaf extract against Trichophyton mentagrophytes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62050/ljsir2026.v4n2.813Keywords:
Antifungal resistance, Acalypha wilkesiana, Dermatophytes, ZnO nanoparticlesAbstract
Trichophyton mentagrophytes is a dermatophyte fungus responsible for infections of keratinized tissues such as the skin, hair, and nails. This disease can be caused by poor hygiene, a warm environment, and an individual's weakened immune system. In this study, we examined the antifungal properties of crude and nano-enhanced Acalypha wilkesiana against T. mentagrophytes. Leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana were extracted with ethanol by maceration. Phytochemical analysis was conducted using conventional methods, and zinc oxide nanoparticles were prepared using a green synthesis technique. The Antifungal potential of A. wilkesiana was evaluated using the agar well diffusion test and microdilution method. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA, with a significance at P ≤ 0.001. The presence of alkaloids (5.82 ± 0.12 mg/g), flavonoids (8.35 ± 0.15 mg/g), and phenols (7.96 ± 0.21 mg/g) was noted during phytochemical screening. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis confirmed ten compounds in the extract. Among the compounds, palmitic acid had the highest percentage peak (18.2%) with a molecular weight of 256 and a retention time of 5.43 minutes. The nano-enhanced formulation demonstrated greater inhibition zones than the crude formulation. Particularly, nano-formulated A. wilkesiana demonstrated significant improvement in antifungal properties against T. mentagrophytes (F = 1,261.50; P ≤ 0.001), with a zone of inhibition of 32.00 ± 1.00 mm compared to 23.00 ± 1.00 mm for the crude extract. Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values showed a dose-response effect on the fungi.
Downloads
References
Settanan Plangsiri, Roberto Arenas Teerapong Rattananukrom (2025) Mycoses21; 68(6):e70082. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.70082Zoonotic
Zhan, P., Liu, W., & Lu, Y. (2020). Epidemiology and treatment challenges of dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Mycopathologia, 185(3), 477489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1104602000440
Amanda Graziela G. Mendes,Carmem D. L. Campos,José L. Pereira-Filho,Viviane S. S. Almeida, Israel V. Moreira,Raphael F. Marques,Mayara Cristina P. Silva, and Valério Monteiro(2026). Acid as a Promising Antifungal Agent: A Review of Mechanisms, Synergy, and Formulation Strategies Antibiotics, 15(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics15010072
Kolarczyková, J., Buchta, V. and Vejsová, M. (2024). Terbinafine resistance in Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Trichophyton rubrum in the Czech Republic: A prospective multicentric study. Mycoses, 67(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13708
Aleruchi Chuku, Bashiru E. Sani, Pedro Akharenegbe & Godwin Attah Obande. (2023) Prevalence and Antifungal Susceptibility of Fungal Isolates Associated with Otomycotic Patients in Lafia.Lafia Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research (LJSIR), Vol. 1(1&2).
Sharma, G.; Nam, J.S.; Sharma, A.R.; Lee, S.S. (2018) Antimicrobial potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using medicinal herb coptidis rhizome.Molecules,23,228
Burkill, H.M. (1985). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa, 2.
Adesina, S.K, Idowu, O, Ogundaini, A.O, Oladimeji, H., Olugbade, T.A, Onawunmi, G.O and Pais, M. (2000). Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana and Acalypha hispida. Phytotherapy Res, 14, 371 371.
Adesina, S.K, Idowu, O, Ogundaini, A.O, Oladimeji, H., Olugbade, T.A, Onawunmi, G.O and Pais, M. (2000). Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana and Acalypha hispida. Phytotherapy Res, 14, 371 371.
Onocha, Z.A., and Olusanya, T.O. (2010). Antimicrobial and anthelmintic Evaluation of Nigerian Euphorbiaceae Plants 3: A. wilkesiana. Afr. Sc., 11, 85 89.
Oluduro, A.O, Bakare, M.K, Omoboye, O.O, Dada, C.A and Olatunji, C.I. (2011). Antibacterial effects of extracts of Acalypha wilkesiana on gastrointestinal tract pathogens and bacteria causing skin infections in neonates. Ife Journal of Science, 13(2), 371 380
Aboaba, S. and Omotoso, O. (2012). Chemical constituents, toxicity, and larvicidal activity of the essential oil from the leaves of A. hispida and A. wilkesiana in south-west Nigeria. Elixir Appl. Chem., 52, 11263 11265.
Anokwuru, C.P, Anyasor, G.N, Shokunbi, O.S., Sopekan, B., Osinuga, O.K., Afolabi,O.E., Arojojoye, O.B., Ezekiel, C.N and Ramaite, I.D. (2019). Chemoprotective activity of aqueous leaf extract of Acalypha wilkesiana against cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity in rats. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 12, 409 415.
Tripathi, S., Singh, P., & Sharma, D. (2024). Nanotechnology-based antifungal strategies: Recent advances innano particle-mediateddrug delivery.Pharmaceutics, 16(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16010112
Association of Official Analytical Chemists. (2016). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (20th ed.).AOAC International
Moringa Olawoyin, A. B., & Omolola, A. O. (2022). Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Morinda lucida leaf extract and evaluation of its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, 15(4), 543 557.
Labulo, A.H., David, A.O., & Terna, A.D. (2022). Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Morinda lucida leaf extract and evaluation of its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Chemical Papers, 14, 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-022-02392-w
Balouiri, M., Sadiki, M., & Ibnsouda, S. K. (2016). Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial activity: A review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis, 6(2), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpha.2015.11.00
Sulaiman, M. A., & James, O. E. (2023). Phytochemical constituents and antifungal activity of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves on Candida albicans. FUDMA Journal of Sciences,7(3), 209– 214. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs 2023 0703 1735
Ikewuchi, J. C., Onyeike. E. N., Uwakwe, A. A., Ikewuchi. C. C. (2010). Effect of aqueous extract of the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana 'Godseffiana' Muell. Arg (Euphorbiaceae) on the hematology, plasma biochemistry, and ocular indices of oxidative stress in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology, 137, 1415-1424
Dada, A. O., Adekola, F. A., Dada, F. E., Adelani-Akande, A. T., Bello, M. O., Okonkwo, C. R.Adetunji, C. O. (2019). Silver nanoparticle synthesis by Acalypha wilkesiana extract: phytochemical screening, characterization, influence of operational parameters, and preliminary antibacterial testing. Heliyon,5(10), e02517. qhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02417
Evans, W. C. (2005).Trease and Evans ' Pharmacognosy. 15th edn. Elsevier. pp. 20.Gotep, J. G., Agada, G. O. A., Gbise, D. S., and Chollom, S.(2010). Antibacterial activity of the ethanolic extract of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves growing in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Malaysia Journal of Microbiology, 6(2), 69-74
Singh, R., Chauhan, R., & Gupta, V. (2022). GC–MS analysis and biological activity of plant-derived secondary metabolites. Journal of Analytical Science and Technology, 13(4), 25–34.
Shinde, D., Rajeshwari, R., & Banerjee, S.(2023). UV–Vis and FTIR characterization of biogenic ZnO nanoparticles. Applied Nanoscience, 13(2), 543–554.
Idowu Ayobami Akinkunmi and Edewor Theresa Ibibia (2025). Phytochemical Profile and Antioxidant Activity of Acalypha Wilkesiana Leaves. International Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Processes E-ISSN 2545- 5265 P-ISSN 2695-1916, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, DOI:10.56201/ijccp.v11.no1.2025.pg57.73
Rahman, A., Sharma, V., & Kumar, P. (2021). FTIR and GC–MS analysis of phytochemicals involved in nanoparticle synthesis. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 258, 119825.
Al Dhabi, N. A., Arasu, M. V., & Duraipandiyan, V. (2020). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using plant extracts and their antimicrobial activity. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 27(3), 1053– 1060.
Abdallah, Y., Ogunyemi, S. O., & Al Hajar, A. S. (2023). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their antimicrobial activity. Materials Today Sustainability, 21(2), 122– 134.
Iravani, S., & Varma, R. S. (2020). Green synthesis, biomedical, and biotechnological applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Green Chemistry, 22(8), 2643–2669.
Khan, S. A., Ahmad, A., & Baig, M. H. (2021). Mechanistic insights into antifungal action of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 679–692.
Reddy, P. J., Singh, G., & Kaur, S. (2024). Green ZnO nanoparticles as antifungal agents: Mechanistic and clinical insights. International Journal of Nanomedicine,19(3), 5129– 5144.
Nxumalo, K. A., Adeyemi, J. O., Leta, T. B., Pfukwa, T. M., Okafor, S. N., & Fawole, O. A. (2024). Antifungal properties and molecular docking of ZnO nanoparticles mediated using medicinal plant extracts. Scientific Reports, 14, 18071. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68979-3
Uttamrao Shinde, M., Pallavi, R., Shrivastav, A., Sivayogavalli, P. L., Rishi Pal, Shanmugam V. M, T. Hase, S. (2025). Nanoformulated Phytochemicals for Enhancing Antifungal Therapy Against Systemic Mycoses. Journal of Neonatal Surgery, 14(6S), 488–496. https://doi.org/10.52783/jns.v14.2256
Dubale, S., Kebebe, D., Zeynudin, A., Abdissa, N., & Suleman, S. (2023). Phytochemical Screening and Antimicrobial Activity Evaluation of Selected Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia. Journal of Experimental Pharmacology, 15, 51. https://doi.org/10.2147/JEP.S379805
Oseni, A. T., Olusola-Makinde, O. O., & Oladunmoye, M. K. (2019).Comparative Analysis of Phytochemical Constituents and Antibacterial Activity of Crude and Purified Ethanol and Ethyl- acetate Extracts of Euphorbia hirta L. Whole Plant. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology, 5(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.9734/sajrm/2019/v5i130121
Pfaller MA, Sheehan DJ, Rex JH. Determination of fungicidal activities against yeasts and molds: lessons learned from bactericidal testing and the need for standardization. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004;17:268–280. doi: 10.1128/CMR.17.2.268-280.2004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar][Ref list]
Abada E, Mashraqi A, Modafer Y, Al Abboud MA, El-Shabasy A. Review green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by using plant extracts and their antimicrobial activity. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2024 Jan;31(1):103877. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103877. Epub 2023 Nov 26. PMID: 38148949; PMCID: PMC10749906.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ogbonnaya Nkechinyere Agwa, Owoseni Mojisola Christiana, Aleruchi Chuku, Nworie Chukwuemeka Richard (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
